Microbial metabolite p-cresol inhibits gut hormone expression and regulates small intestinal transit in mice

p-cresol is a metabolite produced by microbial metabolism of aromatic amino acid tyrosine. and its conjugated forms, p-cresyl sulfate glucuronide, are uremic toxins that correlate positively with chronic kidney disease diabetes pathogenesis. However, how affects gut hormones unclear. Here, we expose immortalized GLUTag cells to increasing concentrations found inhibited Gcg expression reduced glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion in vitro . In mice, administration the drinking water for 2 weeks transcript levels other colon; however, it did not affect either fasting or glucose-induced plasma GLP-1 levels. Furthermore, glucose tolerance but promoted faster small intestinal transit mice. Overall, our data suggest suppresses regulates